Author: Joe Cech

Digestion is essential to break down insoluble food molecules into soluble products (like glucose and vitamins) that can be absorbed by the blood. The soluble products are ‘absorbed’ into the blood stream to later be ‘assimilated’ into body cells.( break down large
Enzymes decrease the activation energy of chemical reactions to a point that they can be performed at body temperature. Without a catalyst they would require a higher temperature not obtainable without harming other body systems.
Physical Digestion– breaking down food molecules without chemical processes. (Mouth and stomach grinding)
Chemical Digestion– The use of chemical reactions to break down molecules, uses enzymes to speed it up.
Carbohydrates (like starch)- are broken down by Pancreatic amylase by hydrolysis of 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
Proteins (Polypeptides) are broken down by Pepsin from the stomach lining by hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
Lipids (triglyceride) is broken down by lipases from the pancreas by hydrolysis of ester bonds between glycerol and the fatty acid chains.

Alimentary organs:
Mouth: Beginning of digestion, use saliva from the salivary glands to mix with the food to break it down for the body to use.
Pharynx: Pathway for food, prevents air from going down simultaneously, and prevents back flow with glands. `
Esophagus: near your windpipe, it receives food from the mouth and uses muscular contractions to deliver food to stomach
Stomach: the container that allows food to be mixed in with the enzymes to break it down farther. Once broken down sufficiently they are passed onto the small intestine.
Small Intestine: Duodenum: Jejunum: Ileum:
Large intestine: Cecum: Ascending right colo and transverse across colon...
Rectum: 8in chamber between the colon and the anus, and functions as the ready to dispose (alerting the brain it’s contents).
Anus: a 2in long canal consisting of pelvic floor muscles and 2 anal sphincters on the internal and external. In combination these muscles can control the excretion or retention of material

Diseases– Cholera: a waterborne disease caused by bacterium Vibrio cholera. Symptoms Cholera causes a lethal secretory diarrhea and dehydration; Other symptoms may include cramping, fever, and nausea. Treatment is antibiotics, rehydration and intravenous fluids. Prevalence:1 in 45,333,334 .
Irritable Bowel syndrome– Signs: abnormal bowel movements. Prevalence: 10.8%. Treatment: initially chew gum, eat fiber and exercise.

And Accessory Organs :
Salivary Glands:
Liver: produce digestive juices to aid in digestion.
Pancreas:produce digestive juices to aid in digestion.
Gallbladder: Store bile from the liver until it is needed for the emulsification of fat
Sphincters: Contract and release to control passage of excretion.

Circulatory System

Arteries—Thick walls to withstand high blood pressure, as well as thick layer of longitudinal collage, elastic fibers and muscle fibers. Walls stretch and recoil with the pumping of the blood, the narrow lumen allows it to maintain a high pressure.
Capillaries— Thin, to allow diffusion though its pores, including plasma to cell tissue. With its narrow diameter it allows for quick diffusion though the large surface area exposed. Connects veins and arteries.
Veins– Thin layer with few circular elastic and muscle fibers, and thin longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers. Wide lumen to accommodate slow flowing of blood, with valves to prevent backflow.

Blood is composed of the following
Plasma– 55% of blood, main transporting part using the solvent properties of water (of which it is mainly composed
White Blood Cells– (Leukoytes) defend body by using phagocytes to kill harmful foreign material.
Platelets– help blood clotting
Erythrocytes– Red Blood cells, synthesize hemoglobin which help in the transport of O2 and CO2. Loses nucleus and organelles to leave just membrane sac. The erythrocyte provide perfect example for structure to function because it simplifies down to a basic transportation member, eliminating unnecessary organelles.
Open— The organs bathe in the blood. (Starfish)
Closed– the blood is contained in vessels whereas in the open-system the flood is free flowing. (Humans)

State function The main function of the circulatory system to provide nutrition to the body cells, however it also filters out wastes and poisons (in the kidney). Included in the material delivered is O2, food particles, vitamins, and minerals to the cell; and also CO2 and other waste products from the cells.
Explain blood Route: Controlled by Atrioventricular (ALv) and Semilunar Valve (SLv)
From the atria the blood enters the ventricle though AVv, blood fills because SLv is closed. After the pressure is accrued the ventricle contracts, the AVv closes, and the SLv opens, this causes blood to be pumped into the arteries.

Diseases– Atherosclerosis: build up of fatty materials on interior walls of coronary artery. Prevalence 17% in teens to as high as 85% in 50+. Treatment– healthy diet and exercising; cholesterol and anti– platelet medication can slow the progression.
4 Variations:
Fish– 2 Chamber, side circuit 1 atrium and ventricle
Amphibians– 3 Chamber, 2 circuits, single ventricle, 2 atria
Reptiles-3 Chamber, ventricle partially split, right systemic aorta (note the diagram combines amphibians and some reptiles because the ventricle is only partially split)
Mammals (birds)- 4 Chambers, Segregate richly and poorly –oxygenated blood with split ventricles

Digestive System

Circulatory System

On PP

Execratory
System

Respiratory System

Immune System

Function:Scout white blood cells (Monocytes)- scan your body searching for pathogens. bring the object to T-Helper which analyzes the proteins to find foreign antigens. If the protein matches known invaders, the T-Helper cell then organizes the "soldier" white cells (Neutrophil and Eosinophil (antibodies)) and instructs them how to dissolve and absorb the protein wall and kill, either the bacteria or the virus.
Innate (Non specific): Born with. Inherent
Passive: Antigen independent but immediate maximal response. The cells defend in a generic way against all attacks. Remove dead cells, identify foreign substances and remove them. EG. Immune system defense we are born with
Acquired immunity (Specific): Learned, adapt
Active: Antigen-specific and antigen dependent, results in immunologic memory/. This is how we generate immunity to pathogens our body has to fight. Prepare for future challenges. EG. Vaccination, mom breast milk
Antigen based on infection, antibodies general defence.
T-lymphocrytes: cell-mediated immune defence (no antibodies) in the adaptive immunity system. recognize the cognate antigen (in peptide fragment). Use cytokines to direct immune response and use cytotoxic cels’ enzymes to induce pathogen’s death.
B lymphocytes produce unique antibodies that attach themselves to the pathogen and then rapidly clone to produce many of the B-cells to defend against that specific pathogen. Recognize the free (soluable) antigen. B-cells can be activated by T-helper cells though some can be independently activated. Part of humoral immune system, (using antibodies).

Major Organs:
Bone Marrow– All cells for Immune system are formed here, precursors of cells sometimes move out to continue maturation somewhere else (Eg: Thymus Gland). Produce: B cells granulocytes natural killer cells and thymocytes.
Thymus Gland– Flat, bi-lobed gland above the heart. Creates many lymphocytes, with main function of producing T cells.
Spleen-immunologic conference center. When macrophage bring antigen to spleen then B cells in spleen mass produce antibodies. Also forms site of old red blood cell destruction.
Lymph Nodes-filter interstitial fluid inbetween cells of body; drain the lymph filter it of antigens and then return it to circulation.

AIDs/HIV– Standard sexual transmitted disease. Fever, Muscle soreness, Rash, Headache, Sore throat, Mouth or genital ulcers, Diarrhea. .6% prevalence in USA. Highly active antiretroviral therapy is the recommended treatment, there is not cure.
RhinoVirus– the common cold. US has 1 billion colds per year. No cure at the moment. Sneezing, sore throat, nasal discharge and up to Severe respiratory problems in long adults

Antibiotics work on bacteria, not viruses.
Antibiotics typically work by inhibiting metabolism of the cell. Since viruses are just DNA , and do not perform metabolism individually. Works at killing bacteria because they are living.

Humoral– use antibodies made in B cells used to fight off infection.
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies use: macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes

Renal Cortex

Renal Medula

Renal Artery

Renal Vein

Renal Pelvis

Ureter